Explanations for Inequality Essay Example for Free

Explanations for Inequality Essay There are many sociological explanations for female inequality in society. Inequality is where something/ someone is seen as not equal compared to something else. For example men have more opportunities than women in life, suggesting females suffer huge inequality in many factors of life. Firstly, Anne Oakley speaks about how women suffer inequalities in the work place. Oakley notes that after the industrial revolution in Britain acts were passed to limit women working; in 1851 one in four married women worked whereas in 1911 one in ten worked. During the Victorian era the ideology that a womans place was in the home became truly established and industrialisation led to the separation of men from the daily routine of domestic life. Now it is claimed that women suffer from four main inequalities in the workplace. Firstly, there is the much debated pay gap in which, even though legislation to stop unequal pay was introduced in the 1970s, the although narrowing pay gap is still visible between men and women. Secondly half of all females in employment are in part time employment; this form of employment is often less secure with fewer benefits. Thirdly, women suffer from vertical segregation; this is sometimes referred to as the glass ceiling effect. Women are seemingly unable to achieve the higher ranking positions and are stopped from achieving managerial positions by an invisible barrier. Lastly, women are said to suffer from horizontal segregation which is the idea of gendered jobs. Liberal feminist Oakley blames the dominant housewife mother role, suggesting that a wifes role is primarily domestic, thus inequality is inevitable. There are criticisms for this study however, suggesting that it sees inequality as simply just a matter of time. As well as biological factors, and time Victoria Beechey, from a marxist perspective has deleveloped a study which sees women as a reserve army of labour. She uses this in order to explain the position of women in the labour market. Marx argued that capitalism required a reserve army of labour, that is a spare pool of potential recruits to the labour force. Beechey identifies a number of ways in which women in modern Britain are particularly suited to form part of this reserve army. She suggests that womens jobs are least likely to be covered by redundancy legislation, so its cheaper to make them redundant rather than men, suggesting huge inequality as it shows women are superior to men. Furthermore she suggests that unemployed married women may not be elegible to receive state benefits if their husbands are working, and for this reason they might not appear in unemployment statistics. Beechey says that women who are made redundant are able to disappear virtually without a trace back into the family. She also suggests that women are more likely to accept part time work due to their domestic role, women tend to be happy in accepting less wages than their husbands as they can rely on their man. This makes you realise that still in society, women who don’t work, even though they want to is still frowned upon, and it would be easier for men to get jobs than women, showing inequality between women and men. Bruegel challenges this theory, she questions the assumption that the interests of capital must be served if women are to be used as a reserve army of labour. She points out that women can also benefit capitalism by producing domestic labour in the home, as this reduces the amount that needs to be paid to male workers. Linda Mcdowell like Beechey also talks about part time work, and why women are more likely to accept it. She applies post-Fordist theory to female employment. Post-Fordism suggests that there has been a move away from mass production to more flexible production of specialist products. Businesses keep a core of highly skilled workers, but most other workers are temporary, or part time, or work is contracted out to other firms. Women tend to be concentrated in the more flexible jobs, particularly part time work. This suggests that even today it is still hard to for women to have a good career like men, as due to other priorities part time work may be the only suitable explanation. Lovering found evidence to support this theory suggesting that post Fordism trends affect only some women. Furthermore, post-Feminists argue that the feminism of the 1970s and 80s is out dated because it sees all women as sharing the same interests and ignores the diverse interests of different groups of women. Natasha Walter believes that there is still much that feminists need to change. She believes that the post-feminist emphasis on political correctness and language neglects the continuing problems of inequality which affect all women. Women still tend to suffer from problems such a low pay, lack of childcare, the dual burden of paid employment and domestic labour, poverty and domestic sexual violence. Following up on this Germaine Greer suggests that women cannot be themselves as they still have to act in the ways men want them to be. This suggests that women suffer in the hands of men, due to them being more powerful etc. Women thus are brainwashed into being how men want them to be, for example, clothing and make up. Radical feminists also believe that mens power and control over men is the main reason for inequality. They believe that patriarchy is the most important concept when explaining gender inequalities. They tend to focus on the power relationships that are experienced in private, in particular the significance of sexuality and the use of violence. Kate Millet believes that oppressive and unequal relationships between men and women originate not in wider society, but in the intimacy of personal relationships, in sexual partnerships and in families and households or various kinds. She believes personal relationships are also political in that they are based on different and unequal amounts of power which are determined by sex and which are reinforced in every aspect of wider society. Culture, government, tradition, religion, law, education and the media all reflect patriarchal leadership and power. Critics of this theory suggest that this theory is ultimately biologically deterministic, since the biological facts of reproduction are at the heart of the position. Not all sociologists believe that inequality is still a major factor in society. Catherine Hakim (economist) suggests a Rational choice theory. She is critical of all feminist positions. She argues that feminist theories are both inaccurate and misleading, and that women are not victims of unfair employment practices. She identifies five myths; womens employment had not in fact been rising, women were less committed to work than men, that their childcare responsibilities were not the main reason for them working part time, that part time jobs were not necessarily worse and finally that women were less likely to be in stable employment. This goes against all feminist explanations and suggests that inequality is not as we see it, and a lot has changed. However, Crompton argues that Hakim underplays the structures within which women make choices. In particular she cites the development of the male bread winner. Other sociologist like Hakim who neglect mainstream feminist values are the black feminists. They are critical of mainstream feminism suggesting that they neglect the particular problems that black women face. Bourne argues that white feminists are luke-warm about tackling racism because they enjoy social, economic and political privileges which make them part of the system which oppresses black women. Further more Yuval-Davis develops this theme claiming that non-black minority ethnics such as Iranian, Cypriot, and Chinese women not only face racism, they also face cultural patriarchy which is particular to their communities. This is suggesting women are not really all in the same position and it affects people differently. White feminists tend to reject black feminists and ignore them from most of the studies and theories.

Henry ford :: essays research papers

THE LIFE OF HENRY FORD Henry ford was born July 30, 1863. He was the first child out of six born to William and Mary Ford. He grew up on a big farm in Dearborn, Michigan. He went to school in a one room building and did many chores every day after he got home. He did not like farm chores. He did like to work on mechanical things. When he was 16, he left home to move to Detroit. He got a job there working on machinery. Three years later he went back home and began to work on repairing steam engines. In 1888, he married Clara and ran a sawmill to make money. In 1891, Henry Ford began working for Edison Illuminating Company in Detroit. He was promoted to Chief Engineer in 1893. He began to experiment on internal combustion engines on his own time at home. In 1896, he built his own vehicle that moved on its own called the Quadricycle. He was not the first to make a machine that ran on gasoline by itself. In 1903, the Ford Motor Company was created. He became the Vice President and the Chief Engineer of the corporation. There were other people who helped run the business and give money to it. The company only made a few cars a day. In 1908, he made the Model T. It was reliable and did not cost a lot. It was easy to drive and handle on rough roads. It was a huge success. By 1918, almost half of all the cars in America were Model T’s. In 1910, in Highland, Michigan, Mr. Ford built another plant to make a lot more of these cars. In 1913, he created the first true

Blue Jeans †American Cultural Artifact Essay

Blue jeans in the last thirty years have attained such world wide popularity that they have come to be considered an American icon. However jeans have not always been held in high stead, but rather have had a troubled history including its beginnings within the working class movement, being considered unsavory by religious leaders and also seen as a rebellious statement about ‘western decadence’. According to the University of Toronto, no other garment has served as an example of status ambivalence and ambiguity than blue jeans in the history of fashion. Throughout this essay I will discuss how jeans have become such a common treasured and even expensive item crossing over class, gender, age, regional, and national lines as reflected by the many changing political views and acceptance from various social classes over the past 50 years. History of Blue Jeans According to the University of Toronto, blue jeans were originally created for the California coal miners in the mid-nineteenth century by the Morris Levi Strauss, a Bavarian immigrant who relocated to New York in 1847. Mr Strauss’ fate and the history of clothing changed forever when in 1872 he received an offer from Jacob Davis, a tailor from Reno Nevada. Mr. Davis, in order to improve the durability of the pants that he made for his clients, had been adding metal rivets to the highly stressed seams. The idea was successful and he wished to patent it, but due to financial constraints required a partner and hence Levi became the financial backer and partner. In 1873, the new partners received a patent for â€Å"an improvement in Fastening Pocket-Openings†, and thus the history of blue jeans as we know them began. Blue jeans were originally called â€Å"waist overalls† by Levi Strauss and Co and in the 1920’s these were the most widely used worker’s pants in America. The name of these trousers changed to â€Å"jeans† in the 1960’s when Levi Strauss and Co. recognized that this was what the product was being called by the young, hip teenage boys. The history of â€Å"waist overalls† continues as the history of blue jeans. â€Å"Jeans† is now generally understood to refer to pants made out of a specific type of fabric called â€Å"denim† (Fashion Encyclopedia). Blue Jeans through the decades The popularity of blue jeans spread among working people, such as farmers and the ranchers of the American West. According to the Encyclopedia of Fashion, in the 1930’s jeans became so popular among cowboys that Wrangler formed just to make denim work clothing for those who rode the range. Jeans have tended to follow along in popularity with popular culture as evident with the popular Western films which found adventure and romance in the adventures of the cowboys who rode horses, shot bad guys, and wore blue jeans. Those who wished to imitate the casual, rugged look of the cowboys they saw in films began to wear jeans as casual wear (Fashion Encyclopedia). This effect is not hard to understand, as even today fashion trends are greatly influenced by what highly publicized celebrities choose to wear. During World War II blue jeans became part of the official uniform of the Navy and Coast Guard, and became even more popular when worn as off-duty leisure clothing by many other soldiers. In his book, â€Å"Jeans: A Cultural History of an American Icon†, James Sullivan states that the rise of the popularity of jeans after the WWII can greatly be attributed to the influence of the film and music industry, during the 1950s many young people began to wear jeans when they saw them on rebellious young American film stars such as Marlon Brando and James Dean. By 1950, Levi’s began selling nationally and other brands started emerging, such as Lee Coopers and each with its own particular fit (Sullivan 287). According to the University of Toronto, in the 1960’s and 1970’s jeans were embraced by the nonconformist hippie youth movement, and the history of blue jeans even gets linked to the downfall of communism. Behind the iron curtain, jeans became a symbol of â€Å"western decadence† and individuality and as such were highly sought. Jeans had become extremely popular, but were still mainly worn by working people or the young. In the 1980’s through to the 1990’s jeans were no longer seen as rebellious or a source of individuality, but they were transformed as the term ‘designer jeans’ was discovered. Many designers such as Jordache and Calvin Klein came on board to create expensive jeans and some jeans even reached haute couture status (Fashion Encyclopedia). In the new millennium denim is seen on designer catwalks and there are now hundreds of styles, types and labels available and of various price ranges. Changing Popularity According to Peter Beagle in his book â€Å"American Denim: A New Folk Art†, the popularity of jeans can be attributed to the fact that jeans can be seen to embrace the American democratic values of independence, freedom and equality. Some Americans even consider jeans to be the national uniform. Blue jeans have evolved from a garment associated exclusively with hard work to one associated with leisure. What began as work clothes has transformed into one of the â€Å"hottest† items available on the consumer market today. What was once apparel associated with low culture has undergone a reversal in status. Blue jeans were the first to accomplish a rather revolutionary cultural achievement bringing upper class status to a lower class garment. Conclusion At one point or another throughout history, blue jeans have been the uniform of many groups and are considered the one garment of clothing that has remained hip for over a century and has survived everything from World War II to the eighties. For half a century blue jeans have helped define every youth movement, and every effort of older generations to deny the passing of youth. Fifty years ago America invented the concept of teenager, and it is probably no coincidence that the enduring character of blue jeans, claiming independence and the right to self-expression, can be traced to the same time. Jeans were once seen as clothing for minority groups such as workers, hippies or rebellious youth, but are now embraced by the dominant American culture as a whole.

The effects of globalization on companies - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 13 Words: 3791 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Business Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? Due to globalization the business people have to interact and manage different people from different cultures. It is helpfulÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦.to think of culture as analogous to music:(a)If another person hasnt heard a particular piece of music, it is impossible to describe.(b)Before the days of written scores, people had to learn informally by imitation.(c)People were able to exploit the potential of music only when they started writing music scores. (Hall,1973). Culture is a collective phenomenon that is about shared values and meanings. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The effects of globalization on companies" essay for you Create order For a successful company a strong connection between organizational structure and culture is very important. Organizing is the process of arranging people and other resources to work together to accomplish a goal. Organization structure is a system of tasks, reporting relationships, and communication linkages. Culture is a collective phenomenon that is about shared values and meanings. Strategic mergers are becoming critical components for todays global business strategy. The common causes for the failure in mergers are structural and cultural differences. Before merger the firms need extensive preparation, a relationship of trust between negotiators and long period of post-merger consolidation. 1.1. Research questions What are the organizational designs and key dimensions of culture? What are the factors that influence organizational structure and culture? What are the impacts of organizational structure and culture on merger Process? 1.2. Research objectives To describe the organizational designs and key dimensions of culture. To identify the factors that influence organizational structure and culture. To describe the impacts of organizational structure and culture on merger Process. 2. Research methodology 2.1. Data collection and data analysis. 2.2. Case study method. 3. Literature review and application 4. Organizational structure: The structure of an organization is the sum total of the ways in which it divides its labour into distinct tasks and then achieves co-ordination among them (Mintzberg, 1979) Managers design the organizational structure to influence employees to achieve wider goals. 4.1. The organizational designs: Organizational design is the process of creating structure that will help to achieve the mission and objectives of an organization. The organizational design consists of 1.Organizational variables, 2.Control variables, and 3.Cultural variables. Organizational variables: The organizational variables are designed to achieve organizational effectiveness. They will help the organization to achieve its goals without any confusion in a precise way. The following are the important organizational variables. 1. Decision rights: This Indicating who is having the responsibility to approve an important decision regarding the business and implement necessary technology and control various types of decisions. It designs the proper allocation of decision rights. 2. Business processes: The set of ordered tasks needed to complete key objectives of the business and includes 1) A beginning and an end,2)Inputs and outputs,3)A set of sub processes that transform the inputs into out puts,4)A set of metrics for measuring effectiveness. 3. Formal reporting relationships: The formal reporting relationship reflects the flow of communication and coordination among the units throughout the organization. Effective communication, coordination and cooperation among uni ts in an organization are basic necessities for growth of the organization. 4. Informal networks: Sharing and transferring knowledge within different project unites other than the formal reporting relationships are the key factors for effective function of the organization. Control variables: These are the tools which will help the organization to monitor, motivate and evaluate the performance of the organization. 1. Data: Collecting information regarding the progress of all units, evaluating and providing feedback. 2. Planning: It is the processes through which the desired strategic objectives are achieved. 3. Performance measurement and evaluation: To improve the quality of work a set of measures are used to get feedback about execution of plans and the processes. This feed back is used to improve the performance of the organization. 4. Incentives: Incentives are motivating factors within an organization which will help to improve the organizational performance. Cultural variables: Set of values and beliefs about what is desirable and undesirable in a community of people. 1. Values: The set of unspoken and clear beliefs that underlines decisions made and actions taken, reflects aspirations about the way things should be done. 4.2. Identifying structural characteristics: Every firm should have a strategic plan which specifies the future direction of the business. The responsibilities of the managers should be organized to achieve the strategic plan, for this the firm should have their organizational structure that identifies responsibilities for each job position and relationships among those positions. The organizational structure also indicates how all the job responsibilities fit together. The organizational structure affects the effectiveness and efficiency with which the firm produces its product and therefore has an impact on the firms value. When choosing a structure that fits its business goals, it is important to understand different types of organizational structures and compare them with each other. Reduce the disadvantages or negative impacts that the chosen structure might have on the business goal. According to my analysis different firms use different organizational structures which are influenced by specific characteristics of it s business and can affect the firms performance. Organizational structures vary among firms according to: Size of organization Strategic importance Budget and time constraints 4.3. Types of organizational structure: Organizational structure defines the way work is divided, managed and synchronized. Organizational structure is formed according to the organizations size and strategy. Functional structures, Divisional structures and Matrix structures are the traditional structures. Team structures and Network structures are new directions in organizational structures. The following are the important types of organizational structures. 4.3.1. Functional organizational structure: In a functional structure employees are grouped by managers according to their activities and profession or function for example like production, finance or marketing. Functional structure is not only used in business but also in banks and hospitals. Functional structure is effective in small organizations with less problems and limited demand for change and innovation. 4.3.2. Divisional organizational structure: A divisional structure groups together people working on the same product, in the same area, with similar customers. It is suits more in complex organizations with diverse operations with many products, territories, customers, and work processes. 4.3.3. Matrix organizational structure: The matrix structure combines functional and divisional structures. It is more precise to use matrix structure in permanent cross-functional teams to support specific products and projects or programs. It is more useful in manufacturing, service industries, professional fields and nonprofit sectors. 4.3.4. Network organizational Structure Network structure is a modern structure which includes the linking of numerous, separate organization structure to optimize their interaction in order to accomplish a common, overall goal, because it consists of multiple organizations that works together to produce products and services. 4.4. Comparison of organizational Structures: In each type organizational structure there are variations. Each one is unique in its own way. The adaptability of a particular structure depends on the necessity of the organization. Functional organization structure : They work best in a stable environment like small organizations with less problems and change. Advantages of functional structure: Economies of scale. Task assignments with proper training and guidance. High-quality technical problem solving. Good skill development within functions. Clear career paths within functions. Disadvantages of functional structure: Difficulties in indicating tasks for things like cost control, product or service quality, timeliness, and innovation. Lack of communication, coordination and problem solving across functions. Divisional Organization structure: They work best in a complex organization with many products, territories, customers, and work processes. Advantages of divisional structure: More flexibility in responding to situational changes. Improved coordination across functional departments. Good responsibility for product or service delivery. Focused on specific customers, products and regions. Disadvantages of divisional structure: Reduces economies of scale. Increases costs through the duplication of resources and efforts across divisions. Creates unhealthy rivalries as divisions compete for resources and top management attention. Matrix organizational structure: The main influence of matrix structures to organizational performance lies with the cross- functional teams whose members work together to share knowledge and information in a timely manner to solve problems. Advantages of matrix structure: Good collaboration across functions. Problem solving takes place at team level which will improve decision making. Improved customer service because there is always respective manager informed and available to answer questions. Better strategic management, since top managers are free from un-necessary problem solving to focus on strategic issues. Disadvantages of matrix structure: The two-boss system is subject to power struggle. It creates task confusion and conflict in work priorities. Strong team loyalties will cause a loss of focus on larger organizational goals. Network organizational structure: A network organizational structure is seen as a more complicated and complex structure than any other structure. A network structure uses IT to link with networks of outside suppliers and service contractors. Advantages of network structure: Quality and cost are the best advantages of network structure. The creative use of information technology. Disadvantages of network structure: More demand for new management responsibilities. Network of contracts and alliances are more complicated to maintain. 4.5. Importance of organizational structure in merger process: Effective organizational structure makes responsibility delegation easier and makes it easy to see the organizational change throughout the organizations. It is important to realize the advantage of organizational structure to benefit from a strong framework. Organizational Chart: is a tool that represents employees work responsibilities and reporting relationships. With its reporting structure it shows the structure and hierarchy of employees of their division of work and level of responsibilities in the organization. Distribution of Authority: Organizational structure shows the authority and responsibility distribution throughout an organization. Employees will get awareness of their superiors and subordinates. Communication: Organizational structure makes communication easy between employees in their duties and this enhances information sharing and problem solving. Chain of command: the structure helps employee to know who is engaged in the decision making process. Proper Balancing: Structure helps specific task and activities to be assigned in functional departments which provide a good coordination between departments. Lorachester,2010 4.6. Impact of organizational structure on merge: In the case of merger, two organizations are required to integrate their organizational structure appropriately. Inappropriate organizational structure can cause failure in integration between firms and reduce benefit of merger. Unclear reporting structure has a great tendency to cause merger failure. Reconstructing organizational structure may take some time after a merger and it may cause uncertainty and anxiety amongst employees. Therefore it is important to declare the new organizational structure with clear roles and reporting relationship of employees (SS Brahma). Good organizational structure facilitates communication between individuals or groups within the two organizations. Incompatible structure becomes obstacle for successful communication and achieving the corporation goal become impossible. 4.7. Factors that influence organizational structure: The organizational structure can be influenced by different factors, such as the size of an organization, the environment, technology, efficiency of organizational design, etc. The structure of an organization should be developed in such a way that endorses the strategy and plan of management. It is very significant for managers to be aware of the factors which may have an influence on the structure of an organization. Environment Strategy People Technology Size Figure: A framework for organizational design- aligning structure with situational contingences Environment Stable Environment- Composed of certain and predictable environment. Desires of customers are well known and may remain constant. Few changes take place in such kind of environment and organizations can perform well without frequent change. Bureaucratic organization and mechanistic design fits in such environment. Dynamic Environment- composed of uncertain environment with less predictable elements. The desires of customer are frequently changing. Organizations must be flexible. For such environment, adaptive organizations and organic design is adequate. Strategy Organizational structure should be designed in such a way to fit its strategies. Different strategies need different structure. Organizations may need to change their strategies or mission for better performance and this leads to a change in organizational structure. Stability oriented strategy only few changes occur in the external environment, Bureaucratic organizations and mechanistic design is adequate for such certain strategy. Growth oriented Strategy Strategies is likely to change frequently. Circumstances are complex and uncertain. The operation objectives focus on flexibility of frequent change and innovation. Plans changes regularly and there is a need for improvement. Technology Technology is the way task is done using knowledge, skill, equipment, techniques and human know-how. Advance in technology cause frequent change in an organization. A suitable technology results in high productivity and lower cost for the firm. Technology is a major influence on organizational structure. The right combination of structure and technology are critical to organizational success (Joan Woodward 1960s). Organizational size As the size of an organization become larger and older, the structure becomes more complicated. It is very difficult to manage large organizations without a formal organizational structure, whereas in very small organizations structure can be very simple. Employees can carry out their task based on their needs, skill and/or interest. Tasks can be performed without having a formal work assignment and delegation of authority. In large organizations, the structure is more liked mechanistic. Tasks are highly specialized and more level of management. Work procedure is dictated by rules and strategies. Communication flow is from superior to subordinate. 5. Organizational culture: Organizational culture consists of the behavior, actions, and values that people in an enterprise are expected to follow.(Pettigrew, 1979) Organizational culture is a set of values, often taken for granted, that help people in an organization understand which actions are considered acceptable and which are considered unacceptable.(Moorhead Griffin, 1992) 5.1. Key dimensions of an organizational Culture: Measuring key dimensions of an organizational culture provides a composite picture of the organizations culture. This will become the base for the feelings of shared understanding of the members about the organization, how things are done, and the way the members are supposed to behave. The following are the 10 key dimensions of an organizational culture. 1. Member identity: The interpersonal relationship of the employees with the organization to feel a vital part of it. It depends on loyalty of employees to the organization. 2. Team emphasis: Organized group work rather than individual work. 3. Management focus: Identifying the effective outcomes of people within the organization and taking them into account to make important decisions. 4. Unit integration: cooperation and coordination among the units. 5. Control: The extent to which rules and policies used on employees to control their behavior. 6. Risk tolerance: The level up to which the employees are encourag ed to be innovative and risk seeking. 7. Reward criteria: A precise system which rewards promotion and salary increase according to employee performance rather than seniority, favoritism or other nonperformance factors. 8. Conflict tolerance: The degree to which the employees are encouraged to talk about the conflicts openly. 9. Means versus end orientation: The extent to which the management focuses on outcomes rather than on techniques and processes used to achieve those results. 10. Open-system focus: Monitoring the changes in external environment. 5.2. Identifying cultural characteristics: Denison Organizational Culture Model, indicates the external adaptation, internal integration, flexibility, stability as cultural characteristics of the enterprise which influences the prospective of organization. These four ideal characteristics would be reflected by four features (1) involvement, (2) consistency, (3) adaptability and (4) mission. Involvement: referred to the capacity of workers, ownership and responsibility. In the culture characteristic reflects the companys training for staff, the communication between workers, the participation of staff and the responsibility of workers. Consistency : to measure whether the company has strong and cohesive internal culture. Whether company has a set of fundamental value, so that employees have immense identity and have clear expectation of future. Adaptability : mainly refer to capability of adapting the change from external environment or whether they have ability to aware the sign of market and response quickly. M ission : is used to determine the company is focusing on immediate interest or has long-term strategy and accurate tactics to approach even bigger goal. 5.3. The stages of cultural formation: As people become more civilized they develop and share some common beliefs and values according to their geographical location which will guide their behaviour.The positive outcome of the beliefs and values makes them strong and will influence on how people should work and relate to each other. The following figure will explain about the stages of cultural formation. Shared values Reinforcing Shared beliefs Outcomes Norms Individual and Group behaviour 5.4. Types of culture: Charles Handy (1993) generalized 4 culture types. Power culture: is one in which peoples activities are strongly influenced by dominant central figure. Role culture: is one in which peoples activities are strongly influenced by clear and detailed job descriptions and other formal signals as to what is expected of them. Task culture: is one in which the focus of activity is toward completing a task or project using whatever means are appropriate. Person culture: is one in which activity is strongly influenced by the wishes of the individuals who are part of the organization. 5.5. Multiple cultures: A key concern in the culture of any organization is diversity. The term multiculturalism refers to pluralism and respect for diversity in the workplace. They value the talents, ideas, and creative potential of all members. Good characteristics of multicultural organizations are, 1) Pluralism: Members of both alternative cultures and majority cultures are important in setting key values and policies. The talents, ideas and creative thinking from different cultures are important for an organization to achieve its goals. 2) Structural integration: Members from multiple cultures are given equal opportunity in all levels and in all functional responsibilities. The integration of all levels of employees, management and all functional unites are important for a successful coordinated progress. 3) Absence of prejudice and discrimination: A proper guidance and task force actions deal with the need to eliminate culture-group conflicts. Prejudice and discrimination will cause differe nce among work force which will affect the work. So it is important to eliminate the prejudice and discrimination. 5.6. Culture and performance: We can review the effect of organizational culture on employee behaviour and performance with some key ideas. The culture of an organization allows employee to understand both the history of the firm and present methods of operation. This knowledge provides guidance about expected future behaviours. The commitment of Organizational culture to corporate philosophy and values. This commitment generates shared feelings of working towards common goals. The organizational culture, through its norms, serves as control mechanism to channel behaviours towards desired behaviours and away from undesired behaviours. Finally, certain types of organizational cultures may be related directly to greater effectiveness and productivity than others. 5.7. Importance of culture in merger process: The market world today is facing increase competition, in such situation organisations will like merge to have popular strategic tools entering new markets and acquiring new technologies. On the other hand, 80% of mergers do not reach their financial goals and 50% of the mergers fail. (Nahavandi and Malekzadeh 1993) Its true that most mergers fail because of financial reasons or economic crisis, and management as well, but we must critically look at the importance of culture in the merger process. When two companies merged with different cultures, it will have greater consequences on the organisation. An example for this is merger between US air and America West. The two airlines had extremely different organisation cultures. US Airways had an older workforce with highly structured bureaucracy, whereas America West had much younger workforce with entrepreneurial culture. For a successful merger they must adopt to a common culture that will suit the company. Cultural differences: When employees do not agree with the cultural adaptation it will create problem for the organisation. This will affect their performance in the organisation. Culture play an important role in the way employees will react when they face new business environment, in some situation where merger take place. Its difficult for some to work with new members within a team. To overcome this problem the organizations need to prepare employees to adapt to the new culture. 5.8. Impact of organization culture on merge: Organization culture is one of the most important factors of success or failure of a company in merger process. Culture will have an enormous impact on the way a company operates today. The culture does not become established until shared understanding achieves dominance in the collective thinking of the members of the organization. The following points below illustrate some important interrelationships that deeply affect the organization culture in merger process. Purpose and Goals: The purpose and goals of the organization initially trigger the kind of culture that founders want to follow their successors to see their vision. The extent to which they achieve this culture depends as much on the others factors as on their own leadership Organization policies: The different rules and policies followed by the organizations will create problem after merge. Organization structure: The difference in organizational structures also causes serious problem in the merger process. Employee skills and attitudes: The different skill sets and attitudes of employees from both the merging organizations also cause some disturbance in merger process. Use of technology: The development of technology and the way its implemented will create an impact on the organization culture. 5.9. Factors that influence organizational culture: The following are the some of the important factors that influence organizational culture in a broad way. Change in management For an organization, change management means defining and implementing actions and technologies to deal with changes in the business environment and to profit from changing opportunities. Change management is one of the main factors that influence organization culture. Change might come in various forms within an organization, such as technological change, change in management staff as well as change in leadership. Employee Employees are part of an organization, they will be unhappy if things are not going well in the organization. In today competitive world, its important for organization to do all they can to keep their employee happy and motivated. Organizational culture plays a vital role amongst employees. An organization that has a good culture ensures that its employees are satisfied with the facilities it provides them. This means that taking adequate care of employees ensures organizational effectiveness. This culture also enables employees to work in a comfortable environment that is reflected in the overall efficiency of their work performance. Geographical location Geographical locations influence organization culture, in sense that when companies are located in a particular region, they mostly adopt to the culture of that area to succeed. Geographical location might vary in turns of language; language is a factor that greatly affects cultural stability. When people from the same geographical location speak the same language, culture spreads easily. Since countries see language as an integrate part of their cultures. Religion is a strong shaper of value; different geographical location has different religions, at such this affects organization culture in that particular region. 6. Case study (US Air and America West Merger Case) 6.1 Brief summary of the case 6.2. What are the influences of organizational structure and culture in merger Process 6.3. Recommendations for the successful merger of organizational structure and culture in US Air and America west merger case. 7. Findings and Conclusions 8. Recommendations Graphs and tables

Determining the Energy Requirements of an Individual

The determination of patients’ energy needs is important in the clinical practice since the balance between energy intake and expenditure has important implications to the patient’s health, as well as underfeeding and overfeeding. However, identifying the patients’ energy expenditure and designing adequate nutritional support for them can be a task, and measurements and estimative calculations are currently used in the clinical setting for this purpose1,2. Determining the energy requirements of an individual may be difficult since many factors are involved – such as age, gender, body composition, physical activity, nutritional status, illness and the goals of the nutritional treatment. As there are no methods which could involve all these factors, dietitians have to be careful and carry a clinical judgement when determining these requirements ³. Energy expenditure is characterized by the number of kcal used by the human body per day. In healthy individuals, energy expenditure can be divided into basal metabolic rate (BMR), thermic effect of food and physical activity. In not so physically active individuals or hospitalized individuals, the BMR is by far the largest component of total daily energy expenditure, accounting for around 60-75% of total expenditure1,2,3,4. It’s the energy required to maintain the organism functions, temperature and survival and, in healthy individuals, it can vary according to differences in body composition (fat free mass proportion), weight,Show MoreRelatedThe Earth s Land Resources Essay965 Words   |  4 Pagesprinciples of green building is to make use of existing building sites, rather refurbished than do not rebuild, so in this way it can save land resources; building orientation in determining the time to consider the use of shading, air can flow in during summer to lower the temper ature of the building, and in the winter use solar energy for heating. 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Use of Computers in Education - 1199 Words

Use of Computers in Education Computers have become an inseparable part of our lives to a great extent. Particularly in the field of education, their uses are manifold. Let us understand them further. Over the years, computers have changed the way the world works. They have proved to be an asset not only for the corporate sector, but also in other sectors such as medicine, architecture, communication, research, sports and education. Speaking of which, computers have taken over the field of education, bringing over its influence in every possible manner. These very machines, which were once used only in research laboratories and government offices have now become a common sight in schools across the world. Today, computers have touched†¦show more content†¦Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/use-of-computers-in-education.html The Use of Computer Software in Medicine The use of specialised computer software has become an important part of modern medicine and has revolutionised healthcare system and medicine as such in many ways. Computer software is used in virtually all fields of medicine and offers a number of direct and indirect benefits for both the patients and healthcare providers. Microscopy imagining. Microscopy or the use of microscopes is of utmost importance for analysing samples, and determining the cause of health problems and proper treatment or management of a particular condition. Specialised software is used in microscope image processing which dramatically reduces the amount of medical errors and improves the quality of healthcare. 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Human Ethics for the Human Ethics Committee

Question: Describe about the Human Ethics for the Human Ethics Committee ? Answer: Introduction About La Trobe University The La Trobe University is situated in Victoria, Melbourne, Australia. It has a centrally operated unit known as the University Human Ethics Committee (UHEC) which is established as per the requirements framed by the National Statement (Rocchi, 2013). The members consist of minimum one person from the below mentioned categories: an experienced chairperson, a doctor, a minister of religion, a legal representative, at least two community representatives and minimum two members with the knowledge of current research (Tsang, 2015). Besides these, there happen to be five Faculty Human Ethics Committees (FHECs). They are basically the committees under the UHEC. The FHECs monitor their respective issues unless they are to be submitted to the parent body UHEC. The FHEC includes members from every discipline from the ethics reviews cases might arise (Gasper, 2013). The ethical background Every interaction by human beings, even those interactions which are parts of human research process consists of ethical aspects. But the ethical conduct is not just doing the correct thing. It encompasses many aspects of our life like acting in the right spirit (Arkin et al. 2015). It also includes concerning attitude for the fellow persons. Ethics is also about showing the due respect to the people around us. The National Statement on the ethical conduct in human research deals with something which in not just the ethical rights and wrongs. It is more fundamental in nature. The persons engaged in human research should be influenced by the ethical guidelines in every human research work they conduct. Human research covers a broad concept. Primarily it means to conduct research with or for the people. It may also include a research work on their data and tissue. (Sugarman, 2012). It is done with a view to doing well for the human race in general. However, in the past we come across c ertain examples where human research has failed to conduct its works ethically and it violated the basic norms of ethical human research. As for example, during the Second World War, a few experiments were carried on in the concentration and detention camps. After the Second World War, the scenario began to change slowly. The judgment made at the famous Nuremberg military tribunal suggested ten views about the experiments which are medical in nature that were to be made permissible. This came to be known as the Nuremberg Code (Manroop, 2015). Keeping these guidelines in mind the World Medical Assembly was formed in 1964. It adopted what is today known as the Helsinki Declaration. Values and principles of ethical conduct Humanitarian research is conducted on a ground where a relationship exists between the researchers and the research participants. There are certain criteria which seek to maintain a healthy relationship between the researchers and the participants. There are certain values and principles which need to be kept in mind while conducting such research works (Wassenaar et al. 2015). These are: a) A sense of respect for human participants b) Merit and integrity of the research c) The prevailing justice concept d) The concept of Beneficence All of these seek to build mutual trust, responsibility and equality of ethics. That is why the National Statement refers to the people as participants and not subjects (Sparrow, 2013). These values are of very old origin. However they are not the only ones. The others comprise of altruism, contribution to goals of society and community and respecting the diversity of culture. These values are described in details in the text Values and Ethics: Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Research (NHMRC 2003). The above values have however become important with respect to ethical human research for the last sixty years. They help us to provide a vital framework for the designing, monitoring and proper conducting of the ethical research works. The primary value out of all of these is that of respect (DeWitte, 2015). It shows that every human being has his own set of values and these values shall be used during every interaction with other people. The order in which they are considered shows the order in which various ethical issues commonly arise in course of human research. Research merit and integrity are discussed with priority. Unless the proposed research has any merit involved and the researchers who are conducting the research have integrity, one cannot ethically justify the involvement of the human participants (Meneilly et al. 2015). Justice refers to the sameness of the human participants that they share with each other. The main focus of every human research work is to create something beneficial for the mankind which is achieved by fair means without being unfairly distributed and without the involvement of any unfair burdens. The researchers use the beneficence in various manners, while computing and accounting for the risks of malice and the potential benefits of the research works to the participants and to the rest of the community also. They also try to remain sensitive to the well being of the persons involved in the research work (DeWitte, 2015). The objective of the research work The La Trobe University wants to conduct a research on the following subject: The aim is to conduct research work on the population consisting of adolescents and young adult patients with Type 1 Diabetes. It has been observed that in modern times, the attendance of the young adolescents in diabetes clinics have not been up to the mark. In order to receive a good care and lead a better life, the young adults, adolescents and the children with T1D should visit the clinics regularly for proper care and medication (Ethicist, 2015). The main aim is to determine the present attendance scenario in the diabetes clinics for the young adolescents and adults. The intended research work includes the following areas of focus: Ascertaining the current health care scenario for the Type 1 Diabetes. To develop and implement an efficient transition program for the adolescents to the young adults Type 1 Diabetes. To design a program that will increase the attendance of the young and adult Type 1 Diabetes patients in the health care providers. Population and sample size selection The population will be selected from that particular age band of 18-30 years with Type 1 Diabetes. For this study, the researcher has selected the simple probability random sampling method. Researcher will use both the online and offline interview process for this particular case study. The participants will be asked several questions relating to the treatment quality and the necessity to transform from pediatric to adult health care in Type 1 Diabetes. The sample size will be 150 people. This is done because it is believed in any research work that what holds true for the sample, can be construed to hold good for the rest of the population also. (Morar, 2014). Data collection process The university is going to conduct the research on patients with Type 1 Diabetes, after getting approval from the La Trobe University Ethics Committee (Tirosh, 2013). For data interpretation, the researcher will be using the descriptive method of data analysis and collection. Semi-structured interviews will be conducted in this particular study. The methods of statistical demographic information will be used by the researcher. Field notes will also be used. The researcher will not ask any personal questions which can hurt the patients emotionally. The replication of logic will be maintained by asking similar questions to all the participants. Data storage The questionnaires will be stored in soft copy also within the system of the university, so that the data collection does not go in vain if the hard copies of the questionnaires are destroyed or lost somehow. This is done to ensure that the research work is not hampered at any stage. The data will be stored on systems having high degree of security, which will prevent any kind of data hacking or data storage (Sexton, 2014). Data analysis technique The analysis of the collected data will be done using the quantitative data analysis techniques. There will also be highly qualified and trained professionals who will be dealing with such data. The other software like Microsoft Excel will also be used whenever required (Posner, 2013). Addressing the ethical issues. The issues of ethical conduct are to be addressed. It should be pointed out by the university clearly to the Ethics Committee that in no way the project is going to harm the participants. The entire process should be scientific and shall involve a moral procedure. If at any moment the committee finds that the research has malicious intentions for the public, then they will not approve the project under any circumstances (Tsang et al. 2015). The researching committee should have very clear and transparent process oriented planning in mind, so that they can satisfy the ethics committee about the viability of such a research work. The committee cannot approve of something which might be a detriment to the society. So, it is of utmost importance that the researchers chalk out a realistic and beneficial project plan which is done with the intention of creating something good for the society (Jones, 2015). Assessment of study risks and measures of mitigation The university must be successful in proving to the ethical committee about the human welfare aspect of the project. In such a vast process of research work, it might well happen that an accident might happen during the process of the project. Plenty of risks are associated with any project work (Silaigwana et al. 2015). There should be estimation of the probable risks involved in the process of the research. This aspect cannot be overlooked under any circumstances as this decides the success and failure of a research proposal. It is imperative that the research department which will be conducting the work should understand the importance of making mitigation plans in case of any contingency. As for example, while collecting the blood sample from a particular participant, it may happen that the persons vein gets ruptured and there is an excess leakage of blood. During such an emergency, the unit should make adequate arrangements with a health care organization, who will tackle such i ssues immediately and with care and empathy (Hosein, 2015). Unless the ethics committee is absolutely convinced that all the processes will have adequate contingency plans and supportive mitigation measures, it will not give the green signal. It happens many times that a number of research proposals fail to get the nod of the ethics committee since they have failed to follow the basic requirements of following the safety norms for the public and a very well thought out mitigation plan (Culbertson, 2012). Drafting of data collection tools In this section, the various tools and techniques involved in the data collection procedure are discussed. Drafting of the participant information sheet Participant Information Statement TYPE 1 DIABETES - TRANSITIONING TO ADULT CARE THROUGH BETTER MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL Invitation of Participation The purpose is to attain good success in determining the current status of Type 1 Diabetes in adolescents and young adults. It will also discuss about the importance of transitional care in the health care providers for the Type 1 Diabetes. Why the study is conducted The basic purpose of the research work is to ascertain what the young adolescents of age 18-30 years who are suffering from Type 1 Diabetes feel about their quality of treatment. Whether they visit the clinics regularly or not? What is their impression about the transition from pediatric to adult care in Type 1 Diabetes? These questions will help to answer the necessary information which the research team is looking for. The main purpose is to reduce Type 1 Diabetes especially from the young population and what steps need to be taken to promote more use of health care to fight the disease. The real life experience of the patients will help to develop various remedies in this regard. The reason for your invitation We have chosen the sample participants from the young age group of 18-30 years. The research is mainly on the young adults and adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes. It is conducted in order to collect information relating to the disease at this young age and what could be the various methods of improvement in the health care system for Type 1 Diabetes. What is expected of you? The participant needs to answer the questions put forward by the research team. The interview process will take hardly 15-20 minutes to complete. The participant should voluntarily try to answer all the questions that are being asked to him. He should give fair answers to the questions as the results of his answers will be used to determine the real life situation of Type 1 Diabetes. If the participant wishes not to answer a particular question, he might do so. There is no pressure on him under any circumstances. What the advantages and disadvantages are? This research is conducted for the welfare of the society. Today the modern world is getting affected by the Type 1 Diabetes at a very early age. The sedentary lifestyle, lack of physical work, stressful life, food habits are to be blamed for all of these. Through this research we will be able to find out the critical areas of improvement in the transition to adult health care in Type 1 Diabetes. So, the participant is doing something which is good for the society. He is making a significant contribution to the welfare of the society at large. Anyone who is affected with the disease from the age band of 18-30 years can take part. Only, the pregnant ladies who are pregnant, persons with asthma, children under the age of 18 years are restricted from participating in the research. There are no visible disadvantages as such in participating in the survey. There is no chance of any financial or loss in health due to this research. If at any point of time, you decide to withdraw from the research or not to participate at all, you may do so. There will be no bindings whatsoever on this. You just need to mention that you are not able to continue your participation on purely personal grounds. There will be no fines or penalties charged to you for this. How will your privacy be protected? The research team will take the utmost care in order to protect your personal data. Extreme caution will be taken to ensure that your personal information and identity is not disclosed or misused. This will be maintained, except in cases where the disclosure of personal information is mandatory in view of public health and safety. All the interview questionnaires will be preserved in hard copy as well as in soft copy. This data will be used for various reporting and publications. Likewise, the interview transcripts and the written narratives by the participants will also be stored in hard copies and soft copies in order to back up the data in case of any loss or damage. The participant can request for a copy of his or her personal data during the course of the research work. But, he will have to show valid reasons for the request. The copy will reach him within a period of seven working days. The participants can also request for a final review of their interview transcripts before s ubmission of the thesis or the publication of the reports. After publication of the final results of the research, the participants will be provided with the summary of the same. The university has the sole right to preserve the data collected through research with itself, for a period of 5 years. The data might be used for future research work by the university without requesting further permission from the participants. The authorized research personnel of the university will have the sole access to the data for re-use in any research work in future. The data gets removed after five years from the date of collection. What will happen to the outcome of the research? The research will reveal all the areas of concern in the field of transition from pediatrics to the adult care in Type 1 Diabetes. It will create more awareness in the society about the ill effects of Type 1 Diabetes and how it can be cured with the help of proper care at the health care providers and also by maintaining a good and healthy lifestyle. Downloading and forwarding the UHEC application form Filling up the application form The application or proposal form should be downloaded from the website of the La Trobe University. It should be duly filled up, with signatures from all the members of the research committee, who will undertake the research work. The most recent version should be downloaded from the website. The UHEC / FHEC will accept the application form for approval of ethics, which should be completed with the DHS Core Application Form and the Checklist. It should be kept in mind that the DHS Core Application Form does not contain the required data and it is the duty of the investigator to ask for all the relevant information to the concerned person or team. Information regarding this is mentioned in the document named UHEC Guidelines for DHS Applicants. Forwarding the application form The process of review related to the individual research proposals which involve the human subjects depends on the associated risks which the subjects may face and that is regulated by the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research, 2007. The process of review designed by La Trobe conforms to the norms laid down by the National Statement. Here is the list of committees who are involved in the review and approval of the applications. The appropriate FHEC needs to monitor the following cases: Negligible risk There is no need for any ethical review in this case. However the researchers should submit a brief summary about their intended research proposal. It is done according to the guidelines of the National Statement. There should be proper audited records also of the negligible risk studies. The FHECs should provide summary along with the checklists for risk assessment for the researches which involve negligible risk to the UHEC (Borenstein et al. 2015). Low risk According to the National Statement, if the risk is of low category, the application must be submitted to the relevant FHEC. The application will be forwarded by the FHEC to the UHEC if the research involves more risk than perceived by the chief investigator of the research team. More than low risk If the research is of more than low risk category, then the UHEC should review it. It is of utmost importance that the members of the UHEC and FHECs are absolutely used to with all the rules and regulations of the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research. The chair review A review is conducted by the FHEC/UHEC and it is not circulated to the other members of the committee. This process is followed in few of the cases as mentioned below: Modifications to projects There may be certain requests for modifying the said project like, extending the duration of the approval, minor changes to the process and other details of study. Projects which are already approved It includes the projects which are already approved by the HREC of any external agency where any of the La Trobe staffs bears a joint appointment or are required to acquire approvals externally, when the study is located centrally in any other agency from where the project will recruit the subjects. But there should not be any La Trobe University students who are involved as participants. Externally approved studies The studies which are approved externally and are conducted by the students of La Trobe and which are of low risk category, may ask for review which is expedited, by the concerned FHEC Chair except when the La Trobe students are selected as the participants of the research. In such cases the study which is approved externally, must come to the hands of the chair of the UHEC for consideration (Ethicist, 2015). Confidentiality The institution maintains a register which consists of all the human ethics applications. It is not a document which is confidential. The register contains the following details such as: Names of the investigating persons, affiliated institutes, the title of the research project and a small objective of the project (Sexton, 2015). The electronic copies of the research proposals and all the documents relevant to the project are stored in the Research Services files. They may also be kept in the office of the relevant faculty. The applications are generally confidential in nature and are not accessible to the persons who do not belong to the ethics committee. However, in some special cases such applications can be made available to the outsiders. As for example, in case of an application being subjected to a court subpoena or a special request to information, under the Freedom of Information Act. If any application is a part of any funded research project, there may be some contractual obligations on the part of the University and in those cases the investigators should maintain confidentiality (Wassenaar et al. 2015). Any information relating to patentable or commercial nature is to be marked with Commercial-in-Confidence while submitting. Advice to applicants It is a general suggestion to all the applicants to follow these rules in order to get fast approval. These steps are to be kept in mind: The application form needs to be fully completed.Language should not be too complicated to understand.The role of the research and what exactly the participants should be doing in the project should be explained clearly (Arkin et al. 2015).The process of receiving informed consent should be clearly mentioned.There should be a clear mention of how the research data will be used and stored.The application should be duly signed in all the required places, by all the investigators.All the documents necessary for the purpose should be included with the application before final submission. Process of approval The applications need to be lodged 30 days before the date of data collection. Unless there is written approval from the UHEC or the relevant FHECs, the process of data collection should not begin. It is to be noted that the applications are taken for evaluation by the UHEC/FHECs within ten or twelve days of receiving and they are considered in order of their date of receipt. The required information on how to fill the form is mentioned on the cover page of the application. The websites of the faculty also contain the additional information for the successful submission to the respective FHEC. Procedure of appeal If an application has been rejected by an FHEC, it is possible for the investigator to file a complaint against the decision of the UHEC. If any application has not been approved by the committee, the applicant may request the committee to review its decision in this regard. In this situation, the committee may seek an expert advice. If the result is still not satisfactory, it is possible to approach the Office of the University Ombudsman. The University Ombudsman will review the process by which the decision was taken by the ethics committee. Conclusion It might be said that the process of any research work, conducted by any institution or health care providers is an extensive one. There are plenty of regulations and guidelines to be followed while carrying out research on the human subjects. As this sort of research work involves the human beings, hence it becomes an extremely sensitive issue (Muller et al. 2015). Thus, a university should be extremely diligent in structuring all the research objectives and should chalk out a course of project in such a way that, it does not cause any harm to the society at large. It should also be kept in mind that there should be a definite contingency or risk tackling plan in mind in case any emergency arrives. This article reflects how the La Trobe University has followed all the basic steps from setting up the research objective to the final submission of the project application form to the ethics committee. The process has been meticulously followed by the university and it has followed all t he steps mentioned in the National Statement (Whiteman et al. 2015). The La Trobe University has successfully lodged the application process for receiving the approval from the Ethics Committee. Now, it is up to the committee to decide whether it will approve the project or not. If accepted, the research will prove to be extremely beneficial to the society. It will help to create more awareness among the general public and help to develop proper solutions (Jones et al. 2015).